Many people from us accidentally delete important data and usually ,most of them do not know tow to get it again. Now I tells a free utility that can retrieve your deleted data from hard drive. Name of this utility is "Raid2Raid". It can be downloaded from ' http://raid2raid.com " for free.

This is a powerful utility that not only recovers deleted files , but also reads data from RAID volumes. Hare is four pretty simple steps to recover deleted files from hard disks or USB disks.To recover data from any medium , it needs to be connected and detected by the computer and primer hard drive where the recovered data will be stored should be larger than the capacity of the data to be rescued.

You can also crate an image of the hard drive, particular volume or partition for future analysis. follow these steps to recover your lost data:

• start the utility and double click on any volume or partition from where the data needs to be recovered.
• After few moments a list of files and folder present and deleted on the drive will be displayed. select the ones you need to be recovered
• once the file are selected, right click on any of selected element and click on "recover this file" from context menu
• choose a alternate location for recovered files to be saved and raid2raid start recovering your data

C

History of C

C language was developed in the BELL labs by Dennis Ritchie. The important features of C are drawn from the language called the Basic Combined programming language (BCPL). BCPL is a predecessor to C. the language was developed primarily for developing multi user operating system called UNIX. 80% of the UNIX is developed using c.

 

In 1983, the American national standard institute (ANSI) formed a committee to provide the modern definition of C. This definition was called the “ANSI C”.

 

C is a highly flexible language. It can be used to develop any application ranging from scientific analysis to business data processing. Hence C is called a high level language. C support huge variety of data structures viz. basic data types like integer, floating point (single and double precision), character enumerative, composite data types like structures, unions and pointers.

 

C is also known as middle level language, as C supports lot of low level functions for manipulating memory and CPU registers.

 

This part concerned with the basic elements used to construct simple C statements. These elements include the C character set, identifiers and keywords. These basic elements are combined to form comprehensive program structure.

 

The C character set

C uses upper case letter A-Z, lower case letter a-z, the digits 0-9 and certain special characters as building blocks to form basic program elements. E.g. constants, operators, variables, expressions etc. The special characters are listed below:

+ - * / = % & # ! ? ^ “ ‘ ~ \ | ( ) [ ] { } : ; . , _ (blank space)

C uses certain combination of these characters known as escape sequences or whitespace characters. These special conditions are backspace \b, newline \n, horizontal \t, etc.

Comments

Comments are the text included in a program for explanation purpose. Comments are not executed. They are ignored by compiler. C support two types of comments.

1.Single line comments: single comments starts with // and proceeds up to end of the line.

2. Multiline comments: Any block of text enclosed between /* and */ is taken as comments.

IDENTIFIERS

Identifiers are nothing but names given to various program elements such as variables, constant, functions and arrays. Identifiers are composed of letters both upper and lower case and digits in any order except that the first character should be a letter. Underscore [“_”] is a special character that can be used in an identifier’s name. Underscore is treated as a letter. Thus an identifier can begin with an underscore.

C is a case sensitive. That is ‘max’ and ‘MAX’ is two different identifiers. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.

 

EXAMPLE

The following are valid identifiers

N             X23         sum_years          _temp

Name    interest_rate     student                                table

The following are not valid identifiers

79:          cannot begin with number

“4^th”:      cannot begins with special characters

System-no:         cannot contain hyphen

Auto:                     it’s a keyword

KEYWORDS

C has a set of reserved words called keywords, which have standard predefined meanings. The usage of keywords solely for their intended purpose. It is illegal to use a keyword as a programmer defined identifier.

The standard keywords are

auto       extern size of   break    float       static     case       for          struct    char       goto       switch   const                     if                typeef  continue              int           union    default long       unsigned             do           register                void       double                return   volatile else        short     while     enum    signed   default

DATA TYPES

Many types of data are supported in C. each of the data types may be represented differently in the computer memories. C supports basic data types and user defined data types. The memory requirement for data types may vary from compiler to compiler.

 

 

Data types	Description	Memory size require
Int	Integer quantity	2 bytes
Char	Single character	1 bytes
Float	Single precision floating point	4 bytes
Double	Double precision floating point	8 bytes

 

The basic data types can be augmented by using data type’s qualifiers viz. short, long, signed and unsigned. For example, an integer can be defined as short int, long int and unsigned int.

A short int require less memory than the ordinary int or it may require the same amount of memory as an ordinary int but it will exceed in ordinary int, in word length.

An unsigned int have the same memory requirement as that of ordinary int. however, in case of ordinary int the left most bit is reserved for the sign. The quantifier unsigned makes the integer to use all the bits to store value, there by altering the range of values that can be stored.

CONSTANT AND LITERALS

An elements whose value is not altered during the execution of the program is called a constant. Even constant have the data types like:

*Integer constant

* Floating point constant

* Character constant

* String constant

* Enumeration constant

Example:

Integer constant-             7              8676       766242  integer constant

Floating point constant-                12.4        -7.154    2E+5

Character constant-        ‘s’           ‘t’            ‘\b’

String constant-                “hello”  “world”                “computer\n”

Unsigned decimal-5000U

Long decimal-    123456789L

Hexadecimal number-   0x62F

Octal number-   0672

Illegal constant:

Illegal character(,)-          10,455

Illegal character(blank space)-    45 656 8

DECLARATIONS

Associating variables or group of variables to a specific type is known as declaration. All variables must be declared before (i.e., in the beginning of the program itself) they are used in the executable statements.

A declaration consists of data types followed by one or more variable names separated by comma and terminated by a semicolon.

Data-types          variable_list;

 

Example:

Int roll_no;

Float average, rating;

Char status;

Short int a,b;

Unsigned int r,s;

Long int r,t;

Double root;

EXPRESSIONS

An expressions may consists of an single entity, such as a constant or a variable name. it may also consist of some combination of such entities interconnected by one or more operators. Most of the expressions in C involves operators.

Expressions can also represent logical condition that is either true or false. C uses 0 to represent false and 1 to represent true. Hence logical expressions are basically numerical expressions.

a+b;       -an arithmetic operation

x=a;       -an assignment expression

c=x+y;   -an arithmetic and assignment operation

c==y;     -condition expression statement checking for equality

i++;        -increment expression sane as i=i+1;

STATEMENT

This is a program construct that carries out some actions. In C, there are three different classes. They are

*Expression statement

*compound statement

*Control statement

Example

1.The following are expression statement

C=7;

C=a+b;

2.compound statement consists of several individual statements enclosed with in a pair of braces{ }.

{

Pi=3.14;

Area=pi*radius*radius;

}

3.control statement

Control statement imolement special program features such as logical test, loops and branches, many control statements are composed of other statements.

While

{

Print(“the value of number=%d”,num);

Num++;

}

SYMBOLIC CONSTANTS

A symbolic constant is the name that substitutes for a sequence of characters. These characters may represent a numeric constant, a string constant or a character constant. Thus symbolic constants enable us to use names in place of numeric constant, a character constant or a string. The processor does the job of substitution. This is known as macro substitution.

Example:

#define MAX 1000

The above segment is a preprocessor directive. Here the name MAX represents the value 1000. The pre processor replaces all the MAX names in the program with the value of 1000.

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

As we have already seen, C has a rich variety of operators. This huge number of operators fall in to several categories.
Arithmetic operators- There are five arithmetic operators in C.

 

Operator	Purpose
+	Addition
_	Subtraction
*	Multiplication
/	Division
%	Reminder after integer division

 

Division of one integer by another is called integer division. The operation always results in truncated quotients. On the other hand, if division operation is carried with two floating point numbers or with one floating pointing number and one integer, the result will be floating point quotient.

Example:

If X and Y are two variables with values 10 and 3 respectively then,

X+Y=13

X-Y=7

X*Y=30

X/Y=3(INTEGER DIVISION)

X%Y=1

IF X and Y are given values 12.5 and 2.0 respectively then,

X+Y=14.5

X-Y=10.5

X*Y=25.0

X/Y=6.25(FLOATING POINT DIVISION)

NOTE: There is no exponentiation operators in C. however, exponentiation can be carried out by using the library function pow().

Type conversion and casting

When an expression involves operands with different data types, the result is automatically convertedto the data type of the highest precision operands. This is known as implicit type conversion.

 

Example

Suppose that j is an integer whose value is 7 and f is a double precision floating point number whose value is 5.5 and c is a character type variable which represents the characters ‘w’ (ASCII value of w is 119)

J+f=12.5; (double precision)

J+c=126; integer

 

The value expression can be converted to a different data type if desired. This is known as explicit type conversion or casting. The syntax for casting is

(data type) expression;

Example:

Suppose that i=10 and f=3 both integers. Then i/f=3; (integer division)

If

(float) i/f =3.33; (floating point division)

In the example, we have explicitly type converted variable I to floating number.

UNARY OPERATORS

The class of operators that act upon as single operand to produce a result is known as a unary operator. Unary operator usually precede the single operands.

 

Example:

1.The Unary minus(-)

-555           -0x5fff         -0.5

2.The increment (++) and decrement (--) operator

The increment and decrement operators cause their operands to be incremented or decremented by one respectively. There is a difference when these operators are placed before or after their operands.

Example:

Suppose I is an integer whose value is 10 then,

J = ++I;

The value of j is 11. Above expression first increments the value of I and then assigns to j. this is called pre increment operators.

J=i++;

The expression will cause the value of I to be assigned to j first and then incrementation takes place. hence value of j is equal to 10, but value of I is 11. This is called post increment operator. The same rule applies to decrement operator (--) as well.

3. The size of (operand) operator

This operators returns the size of the operands in bytes.

Example

Sizeof(int) =2;

RELATIONAL AND LOGICAL OPERATORS

There are six relation operators in C. they are

Operator	Purpose
<	Less than
>	Greater then
>=	Greater than or equal to
<=	Less than or equal to
==	Equal to
!=	Not equal to

 

These six operators are used to form a logical expression which represents conditions that are either true or false. In C, this is interpreted as zero for false and non-zero for true for true. The non-zero value can be either positive or negative.

 

Example:

Suppose x, y and z are integer variables with values 1, 2 and 3 respectively then

(x

(x+y)>=z              value=non zero

(z!=3)    false      value=zero

(y==2) true         value=non zero

In addition to relational operators, there are two logical operators. They are

Operator	Purpose
&&	AND
||	Or

 

Logical operators act upon operand that is they logical expression. The net effect is to combine the individual logical expression in to more complex condition.

AND operator returns true if either one of the operand is true or both are true. If both operand are false, then the output of OR is also false.

 

Example:

Suppose I is an integer with value 7. F is floating point whose value is 5.5 then,

(I > 6) && (f== 10.0) false

(i==7)|| (f<3.0) true

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY

Precedence and Associativity control how an expression is evaluated if more than one operator is present in the expression.

Example:

Suppose x=10, y = 5 and’

Z = x + y * 2;

In the above expression, the value of z should be 20. That is y *2 should be evaluated first and then the result should be added with value of x. here we mean to say that * has more precedence that +.

Associativity tells us in what order the expressions are evaluated if more than one some operators with same precedence occur in a statement.

 

Example:

Suppose

Z = x + y -5;

In this expression value of z should be 10. Here + and – have same precedence, but x+y is evaluated first, then 5 is subtracted from the result. That is, the above expression is same as Z = ((x+y)-5). The associativity is known as left to right associativity.

CONDITIONAL OPERATOR

Simple conditional operation can be carried out with conditional operator(?:). The general form of conditional operations is as follow.

(expressions1? expression 2: expression3);

When evaluating a conditional expression , expression1 is evaluated first. If expressional1 is true, then expression2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of conditional expression. However, if expression1 is false, expression3 is evaluated and this becomes the value of conditiona; expression.

 

Example:

Suppose I = 10, then

Z = (i<5) ? 0 : 100;

Here the value of Z should be 100. Since I < 5 is false, the value 100 is assign to Z.

ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR

C has different assignment operators. All of them are used to form assignment expression which assign the value of an expression to an identifier.

The most commonly used assignment operator is “=”, in general form,

Identifier = expression;

 

Example:

A = 10;

Y = m * x + c;

During assignment implicit type conversion may result and this may lead to alteration of data being assigned between different data types.

C contains the following five additional assignment operators: +=, -=, *=, /= and %=.

 

Example:

A = a + b; can be written as

A += b;

This holds good for other operators also.

LIBRARY FUNCTION

Lot of library functions is bundled along with c language. The library function are categorized in to various categories such as standard input and out, mathematical function, string function, type, etc. these library functions are not part of the language though all implementation of the language include them. Anybody who wishes to use these functions should include the appropriate header file where the functions are defined. This inclusion is done by the processor directive.

#include

 

Example:

#include           includes standard input and output

#include          include console input and output

#include          includes string manipulation function.

 

 

Troubleshooting PC network is amongst the most of import work descriptions of the network executives, PC administrators, net technicians & the IT advisors. A PC meshwork could have divergent varieties of troubles such it dismiss be contaminated with computer virus & malware, attacked by hacks, accessed through unauthorised exploiters & might face connectivity failure effects because the defective network equipments or conformations. Next is a listing of the common network troubleshooting controls that are inbuilt the operating system based operating arrangements & UNIX operating system etc. The correct practise of these troubleshooting instructions could facilitates a great deal in diagnosis & dissolving the events with your PC meshwork.

PING

Ping is the most significant troubleshooting instruction & it checkouts the connectivity with the added PC's. E.g. your system’s IP is 10.10.10.10 & your net servers’ IP address is 10.10.10.1 & you'll be able to ascertain the connectivity with the server through utilising the Ping program line in coming after formatting.

At DOS prompter type Ping 10.10.10.1 & press out enter

Whenever you cause the respond from the host so the connectivity is alright & whenever you capture the fault content like these “Request time out” these implies the there's certain trouble in the connectivity on the host.

IPCONFIG

IPconfig is some other significant instruction in Windows. It displays the IP of the PC & besides it exhibits the domain name server, DHCP, Gateway handles of the net & subnet mask.

At DOS prompter typewrite ipconfig & click enter to assure the IP of your PC.

At DOS prompting case inconfig/all & click enter to check the elaborate data.

NSLOOKUP

NSLOOKUP is a transmission control protocol/internet protocol supported instruction & it checks out DNS aliases, domain name server records, OS information by placing enquiry to the web DNS Servers. You'll be able to dissolve the faults with the domain name server of your meshwork server

Domain name

Hostname instruction exhibits you the PC name.

At DOS prompting type Hostname & click enter

NETSTAT

NETSTAT service program displays the communications protocol statistics & the latest accomplished transmission control protocol/internet protocol associations in the PC.

NBTSTAT

NBTSTAT aids to troubleshoot the NETBIOS figure resolvings troubles.

ARP

ARP exhibits & changes IP address to Physical name and address transformation table i.e. Practised by the ARP communications protocol.

FINGER

Finger instruction is accustomed recollect the info about a substance abuser on a net.

TRACERT

Tracert instruction is practiced to check the track of the distant PC. This tool also allows for the count of hop & the IP of all hops. E.g. if you would like to come across that how many hop (routers) are affected to get to www.yahoo.com & what’s the IP of all hops and so use the following instruction. 

At prompt type tracert www.yahoo.com you'll attend a listing of every the hop & their IPs.

TRACEROUTE

Traceroute is a precise effective net debugging instruction & it's applied in positioning the host that's decelerating the transmitting on the web & it too shows the path between the 2 arrangements.

ROUTE

Route instruction grants you to build manual entrees in the rootling table.

Hopefully the above-named instructions will assist you to diagnose the troubleshooting your PC networking troubles.

UNIX 
UNIX is a time sharing operating system: a program that controls the resources of a computer and allocates among users in addition to controlling the peripheral devices and managing a file system.

Evolution of UNIX
UNIX was developed in 1969 at AT &T bell laboratories. It was developed by designers, who were involved in the development of less popular MULTICS operating system. UNIX is the brainchild of two persons Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie. Their first venture was a modest multitasking system to support two users. This operating system supported an efficient file system, a command interpreter and a set of utilities.

Earlier versions of operating system did not support machine compatibility. But UNIX changed the operating system world scenario entirely by breaking through this seemingly difficult demerit by running on different systems. UNIX was not written in assembly language as most operating system were. It was written in C to aid the machine compatibility feature by making it compatible to different hardware platforms.

Versions of UNIX
The AT & T Bell laboratory where the UNIX was primarily developed was not able to commercialize its products due to a judgment imposing ban passed by government. This judgment forces the AT & T Bell laboratories to sell its product to various academics institutions. Later business establishments joined in the development of the UNIX operating systems. As the results of all these efforts different versions have emerged. Theses versions have been discussed briefly in the forth-coming sections.

Berkeley UNIX
Of all the versions of UNIX this deserves a special mention due to its larger contribution to the development of the operating system. Most of the new features in the UNIX operating system were developed at the University of California, Berkeley.
We could almost say they created a UNIX version of their own. This version was named as BSD UNIX where BSD is the acronym for Berkeley software distribution. Berkeley UNIX has a more efficient file system than AT & T original version and is also equipped with better linking facilities.

Other versions
AT & T Bell laboratories embarked on commercialization of its UNIX after the government’s ban on it was removed. Their earlier versions previously known as “editions” were then changed to “systems”. The first to come in the “system” series was system3, which later became system V Release 3.2 followed this version. There are many other versions of UNIX. These include the Microsoft and sun Microsystems versions. Microsoft’s developed its own version of UNIX and named it ‘ZENIX’ which was later sold off to Santa Cruz operation (SCO). The sun Microsystems versions of UNIX is called as ‘SOLARIS’.

LINUX 
Linux was the first non-commercial version of UNIX. LINUX was developed by Linus Torwalds as his final year project while doing under graduation at Helsinki University in Finland. The licensing made the source code public. Linux is strong in networking and internet features. Linux can run on all PENTIUM PC’S apart from Apple’s power pc and sun’s sparc computers.