Indian subcontinent is separated from the main landmass of Asia by the huge range of mountains called the Himalayas. The subcontinent includes countries like Pakistan, Nepal Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and India. India is the largest country in the subcontinent.

India has three main landforms:-

1) The Himalayas in the North.

2) The indo-Gangetic plains in the middle.

3) The Deccan plateau or Dakshin plateau in the south.

The Himalayas extend from the west to east for nearly two thousand and five hundred kilometers. These high mountains protect India from winds from the north. The tall peaks are covered with ice. There are beautiful carved peaks like Mt. Kanchenjunga, Mt. Nanda Devi and Mt. Shivling.

There are beautiful valleys between the hills like the Kashmir valley, the Kulu valley, the Kumaon valley and the valley of flowers. There are many glaciers in this region like the Gangothri, Yamunothri and kathiling. From these glaciers, rivers run down to the plains. The Himalayan range is a big watershed. Many rivers flow down the mountains in different direction. The Ganga, Yamuna, Sindhu, Brahmaputra are big rivers in India. There are also beautiful lakes in the Himalayas like the Lake Manasarovar and the Dal Lake. Up to a great height, there are many villages and forests.

Animals like the panda, sow- leopard and musk deer have made their homes on the higher mountains slopes.

There are many forests of oak, birch, pine and deodar. Himavan they mythical king of the Himalayas, is the protector of forests lakes, animals and birds.

Many useful are found in the Himalayas. The Himalayas look grand with sunlit peaks, green forests and brooks.

Indian culture is influenced by the Himalayas. The Himalayas prevent the freezing northern winds from Central Asia from reaching India. They are also giant-like guard. There are only few high and difficult passes. So invaders were few and far between. The Himalayas protect and allow Indian culture to grow undisturbed. Though the Himalayas prevented the entry of large armies, they allowed a few pilgrims and traders to come through the passes.

The indo –Gangetic plains were formed by the Indus and its tributaries. The Himalayan Rivers powered the rocks on the mountains and carried them down to form an alluvial plain. This is a flat land with a gentle slope to the east.

These fertile flat plains are fine places for man to live in. even today, more people live in the Gangetic plains than anywhere else in India. There are many ancient cities here like Varanasi, Patna, Hastinapur and Gaya. The main occupation of the people is growing crops. The Deccan plateau is a volcanic plateau. The lava from the crack on the west side spread over a large area in sheets. The west side of the plateau is higher and bounced by the hills called he Western Ghats. Hence many of the south Indian rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery flow from the west to the east.

The Eastern Ghats on the east coast consists of another group of hills.

The Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east enclose the southern peninsula. India has long coastal line. The east coast is called the Coramandel coast and on the west are the Malabar, the Konkani and the Saurashtra coasts. There are fine harbors on the west coast and on the east coast. There are also beautiful beaches and lakes. The marina beaches in Chennai are the second largest beach in the world.

Calcutta, the city of joy throbbing with life, has charm of its own in spite of being hot, dusty and noisy. Calcutta is linked by water rail, road and air. It is the capital of west Bengal and has a population of more than eleven million people, most of who live in very poor condition.

Calcutta is a port even though it is about 135 kilometers away from the Bay of Bengal. The city with it is outlying towns and districts stretch for 1000 kilometers along the banks of the river Hooghly, which is a large tributary of the river Ganga. Hence Calcutta is a river –port. The docks lie south of the famous Howrah Bridge which spans the river, connecting the city of Howrah with Calcutta. This is a suspension bridge, which means that its roadway is suspended by cables from pillars which are easily seen from a distance. There is enough room under the bridge for small ships to go p the river. Calcutta is situated to the north of the Bay of Bengal, not many ships from the west cell here. The port is gradually losing its importance as the river is silting up and has to be dredged frequently. The new, deep water-port Haldia, about 100 km down stream, may soon take its place.

Howrah, on the right bank of the river is the rail head. This large, noisy station is the terminus of the railways from all over the country.

As Calcutta lies on the Gangetic plain, the soil here is very fertile. Canals tha6t take water from the river also provides cheap waterways for transporting food.

The fertile valleys of the Ganga and Brahmaputra lying behind the city are the hinterland of Calcutta. On account of this fertile hinterland, Calcutta is able to manufacture and export jute, tea oilseeds, iron ore, shellac and coal. The imports are petroleum and foo0d grains. There are a large number of factories in and around Calcutta that make electric appliances rubber gods, paper, sugar, motor cars, jute goods and iron goods.

As Calcutta is situated near the sea, it never gets very cold. The average winter temperature is about 10 degrees cilices in December but during summer it can get quite hot- about 30 degrees cilices in May and June as the sun’s rays shine directly over Calcutta at this time. The rains come in July. August is the wettest month with an average rainfall of about 32 cm.

The large, open space called Maidan lies in the centre of Calcutta. Here are beautiful lawns dotted with trees and small lakes. There are besides this park is the main road of the city, Chowringhee road, where the best shops, restaurants and cinema theaters are located. The British built a replica of the Taj Mahal at the southern Memorial which houses the relics of British rule. Priceless treasures of our ancient civilization are stored in the Indian Museum. The /national Library and the Raj Bhavan –the residence of the Governor- are rather impressive buildings of the British Raj. The Birla

Planetarium which is a famous observatory for studying the stars is also located in Calcutta.

The shortage of housing and amenities however make Calcutta one of the most crowed cities of the world.

The city was observing `friends of the green’ day. The guide explained to the tourists a group of them to visit the city gardens.

As they walked around with saint Ramoji, the clever sage, they noticed that a peel tree was growing right through a wall. Saint Ramoji explained that all fig trees, the peepal being one being one of them, grow anywhere. `The peepal tree is a sacred tree. It is said God appeared to Buddha while he was sitting under it and praying.’ Saint Ramoji remarked that people believed it was dangerous to lie and cheat when seated beneath the tree. However, people continue to do these things in spite of having peepal trees in the bazaars!

The group then walked further till they came to a banyan tree. The people were impressed with its size. One of the man asked why these trees were not seen in the city itself. `That is a good question. You can see it needs a lot of space to spread itself out. Look how its branches reach the ground, take root again and then send up more trailing b5ranches, which spread out again and give further strength and support to the trees,’ said saint Ramoji.

Old service man Mr. Mohan, head of the gardens, arrived and explained that it would not be possible for them to talk about all the wonderful trees, but they must not miss seeing the palm trees. They noticed that the palm trees were in a row, the way they are near the seashore. The ladies in the group could identify the Palmyra tree, from which the cool and delicious Palmyra fruit is obtained. There was also the betel –nut and date palm which is an important tree. Muslims break their fast with the date, which is highly nutritious.

The people wanted to know about the coconut palm. Mr. Mohan explained that it was a popular palm because it gave water in the shell, flesh in the nut, oil for cooking and applying too the hair. The coconut tree is useful to us in other ways also. Brooms are made from its leaf ribs; palm wine, sugar and jaggery are made from its sap; fiber is obtained from the outer cover of the nut. Butter is produced from the dry copra.

Having enjoyed their visit, the people returned to colony. The people said the visit would have been more enjoyable if they had been permitted to climb the trees!

They were long flowing robes with wide sleeves to protect them from the sun. The women also wear colorful turbans and carry their babies on their back, in a cloth sling.

Kano is a caravan town in North Nigeria. See there how farmers live in the villages nearby. The soil of this area is sandy because of sparse rainfall which allows the Hausas to grow groundnuts, millet, yams and tapioca. There are large and small houses in this area but they are all built with flat roofs and small windows. The dried millet stalks are used as a framework for the walls and are plastered with wet clay which dries and becomes hard. The houses are set close together and the whole villages are fenced with millet stalks, to protect the villagers from the lions, jackals and hyenas that abound in this area.

The ground nuts are sown in May at the beginning of the hot, wet season. Land is dug up and manure and groundnut seeds are planted in long, straight rows. The seed germinates and soon a shoot begins to spread it self across the ground. After about five weeks pale, waxy, yellow flowers begin to appear from under the leaves. The stem then begins to thicken and the nuts developing under the ground, which gives this nut name. As groundnuts are a favorite with birds, animals and men, this is nature’s way of protecting them. By October the nuts are ready to be harvested.

The Hausa way of farming is known as peasant farming. The male members of the family use digging sticks to prepare the ground. Those members of the tribe who are more modern now use wooden ploughs drawn by bullocks.

The women shell the groundnuts and get them ready for export. Due to the dry weather to sacks of nuts can be stored in the open until they are moved to the coast. Since groundnut is a cash crop, great care is taken with its harvest and preparation.

Other food crops are millet, sweet potato, yam and tapioca. Millet is pounded and then boiled into a paste which is eaten with meat or soup. Tapioca is also made into a soup called tebba. Yam, when harvested, is stored by being tied to bamboo stakes which allow air to pass freely al round them. Some times, some of the groundnuts are roasted and pounded into a paste and eaten.

Apart from agriculture, the Hausas also keep cattle and chicken. Like people in India, they are good at cottage industries and are very clever with their hands. They weave cloth on looms at home and make articles of leather and grass and wood. Most of the Hausas are Muslims, though they have contact with people of other religions. Occasional trips are made to Kano, the collecting centre for groundnut.

The Masai

The African savanna has been a home to human beings since millions of years. And cattle have been herded ever since.

The Masai of Kenya and Tanzania are the most famous cattle-herders or `pastoralists’ of this region today. They keep goats, sheep and the humped Zebu type of cattle. Not all Masai are nomadic. Some have settled down and practice primitive agriculture. Their houses are circular in shape with thatched roofs and walls plastered with mud and cow dung. The huts are surrounded by thorn fences called bomas.

The Arusha are a group of Masai who cultivate many crops such as cotton, hemp, millet, bean, sweet potato, groundnut and yam.

Many of the Masai today are educated and they work amongst their own people. They are teachers and agricultural experts too, improving the quality of crops, animals and the lives of people in those regions.