UNIX 
UNIX is a time sharing operating system: a program that controls the resources of a computer and allocates among users in addition to controlling the peripheral devices and managing a file system.

Evolution of UNIX
UNIX was developed in 1969 at AT &T bell laboratories. It was developed by designers, who were involved in the development of less popular MULTICS operating system. UNIX is the brainchild of two persons Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie. Their first venture was a modest multitasking system to support two users. This operating system supported an efficient file system, a command interpreter and a set of utilities.

Earlier versions of operating system did not support machine compatibility. But UNIX changed the operating system world scenario entirely by breaking through this seemingly difficult demerit by running on different systems. UNIX was not written in assembly language as most operating system were. It was written in C to aid the machine compatibility feature by making it compatible to different hardware platforms.

Versions of UNIX
The AT & T Bell laboratory where the UNIX was primarily developed was not able to commercialize its products due to a judgment imposing ban passed by government. This judgment forces the AT & T Bell laboratories to sell its product to various academics institutions. Later business establishments joined in the development of the UNIX operating systems. As the results of all these efforts different versions have emerged. Theses versions have been discussed briefly in the forth-coming sections.

Berkeley UNIX
Of all the versions of UNIX this deserves a special mention due to its larger contribution to the development of the operating system. Most of the new features in the UNIX operating system were developed at the University of California, Berkeley.
We could almost say they created a UNIX version of their own. This version was named as BSD UNIX where BSD is the acronym for Berkeley software distribution. Berkeley UNIX has a more efficient file system than AT & T original version and is also equipped with better linking facilities.

Other versions
AT & T Bell laboratories embarked on commercialization of its UNIX after the government’s ban on it was removed. Their earlier versions previously known as “editions” were then changed to “systems”. The first to come in the “system” series was system3, which later became system V Release 3.2 followed this version. There are many other versions of UNIX. These include the Microsoft and sun Microsystems versions. Microsoft’s developed its own version of UNIX and named it ‘ZENIX’ which was later sold off to Santa Cruz operation (SCO). The sun Microsystems versions of UNIX is called as ‘SOLARIS’.

LINUX 
Linux was the first non-commercial version of UNIX. LINUX was developed by Linus Torwalds as his final year project while doing under graduation at Helsinki University in Finland. The licensing made the source code public. Linux is strong in networking and internet features. Linux can run on all PENTIUM PC’S apart from Apple’s power pc and sun’s sparc computers.

Microsoft Office Excel – Tips & Tricks

How to Close all files at a time:

You opened 22 workbooks in excel and work in one by one file. You are called by some one for urgent out door work. At that time you should close all the opened files in excel. If you want to close one by one there should be no time. At that time you can close all 22 files at once. How is it possible? What is the shortcut method? Let us see.

Hold down ‘Shift’ key and click on file menu then go to ‘close all’. By clicking the ‘close all’ button you can close all opened files at a time.

How to Increase the number of recent work books:

There are only 4 recent workbooks in file menu as default.

If you want to open minimum 6 workbooks to maintain your office accounts you should increase the number of recent workbooks in the file menu. To activate this job go to Tools>options>general tab. By clicking the ‘General’ tab there should appear a button ‘Recently used file list’ and a number box near it. You can increase the number of files by typing number or by clicking arrow mark.

How to Open all files at a time:

If you want to open 9 files to work you should open one by one. There should be waste of time to open all files. There is a short way to open all files at a time in excel. That is called as ‘workspace’.

First of all open all the files one by one. Now go to ‘file’ menu and select ‘save workspace’. Give any name to identify the workspace. All opened files are saved to this named wok space. If you want to open all these files, you can open this workspace only. But one thing, if you move any file from this set to another folder the file will disappear from this workspace.

To move cursor to desired position after typing number:

By pressing cursor key after type a number in a cell you can move the cursor key in direction shown by arrow key. Although, if you are a ‘numeric key pad’ user, use ‘enter’ key instead of ‘arrow’ key. But when pressing ‘enter’ key, excel will move the cursor to the below cell. Then how to set the cursor direction as we like?  There is a setting in excel program to do this.

Go to Tools > options > edit > Move selection after Enter Direction. Then click the arrow near ‘Down’ button as shown in the above figure. There should appear a scroll bar and you can set a direction to move the cursor in excel work sheet.

How to put page number in each page:

Whenever you type a long report in excel program and want to put page numbers to all pages follow this easy step.

Go to ‘File’ menu and click ‘Page Setup’. There should appear a small window. In that window there are 4 Tabs. There is ‘Header/Footer’ Tab as the third tab. In ‘Footer’ dropdown menu there will be ‘options’ button. In this option select Page 1 of ?. If you select this option, footer will be printed.

In every page the number 1 of 2 will be printed.

There is another way to print the page number. Select ‘Custom Footer’ button from option menu then select the ‘Text Box’ appeared in the right side corner. In the Text Box click the cursor and type ‘Page’ then leave a space, then click the icon ‘X’ and leave a space after that type ‘of’ then leave a space then select ‘++’ (Total Pages) icon. By this Page number will appear on the footer.

To appear Titles on each page:

In excel worksheet the titles are typed on top row of the first page. In other pages the titles should not appear automatically. So, there is some difficult to type proper data below the titles of each page. To solve this problem you can set the titles on each page automatically. When you go to next pages the titles can stay on the top of page.

To set the titles for each page, select the cells you want to stick on the top of page. Then go to menu bar then click window > freeze panes. There you can see a line in your work book. Now you can go to any pages and can see the titles. If you don’t want to see the titles in each page, you can follow the same steps and click the ‘Unfreeze panes’.

To open excel with more worksheets:

When opening a excel workbook there are three worksheets appear by default. You can increase the number of worksheets in a excel workbook. Usually, to increase the work sheet, we go to insert menu and increase the work sheet. But you can increase the number of worksheets by another simple way. Go to Tools > options > general. In ‘general’ tab there is a small window appears. In that window there is a line says ‘sheets in new workbook’. Near that there is a number ‘3’ in default. You can change the number as you like.

M.S.Paint program comes with Microsoft Windows. This program is used by all people from children to aged person. We can do all editing works in any photo images by this amazing software called MS paint. We can paint, edit and other image editing works in this program. This article is written for newbie in M.S.Paint.

M.S.Paint is a free graphics program given by Microsoft Office. In this program we can edit, cut, paste the images, we can change size of the images as we like and can put text on the photos. Also we can make small objects in this program. We can do coloring to images in it. Another thing is change of format of an image. We can do it in M.S.Paint.

To run this software Go to Start Menu>>All Programs>Accessories>Paint.

After opening the Paint program, we can see Tool bars in up side, left side and bottom side of the main window. We can use these Toolbars to handle the images. If you cannot see these Toolbars Go to View menu and then check the tick mark on Toolbox, Color Box and Status Bar. There should appear all the Toolbars. We can see the purpose of the Toolbars by putting the mouse curser on the icon for sometime.

Now, let us see how we can draw a new image. Go to ‘File’ menu and click ‘New’. If you feel there is not enough space to draw an image go to Image > Attributes. Here we can increase or decrease the canvas size. Select any color from the color box which is appearing in bottom of the window. The left side toolbar helps to draw the image.

For example, if we want a small Rectangular box, select the rectangle tool and click the mouse on the canvas window and drag the cursor. There is a rectangular box will be appeared. This has the color which we select already. Then select another color and click ‘Fill with color button’. Now, we can click anywhere in side the color box and drag the cursor. The box is filled by the selected color. As this method select the other icons in the left side tool bar and try to draw an image. If we do mistake, we can erase them by clicking the eraser which is mounted as icon in the left side tool bar.

Now, we can see that how to edit the image which is saved already in our PC. We can change and modify any photo images by this method. Also, we can change the hair color of a man. We can put a cap on head and change the dress color of a man by using this program.

To open already saved file, go to File> Open and select the directory and select the image you want to edit. If we want to get this image in the already created canvas go to Edit>Paste From.

To change the structure and size of the image go to Image>stretch/skew.

To rotate the image go to Image>Flip/Rotate.

As final step we should save the image. For that, go to file menu and click the save button. By clicking the save button we can select the file format (BMP, JPEG or GIF).

If we want to print this image we can print as usual.

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