Byzantine Art
The Byzantine art developed in the Byzantine Empire between the disappearance of the Western Roman Empire in 476, and the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The art produced before in the same region coincides with the early Christian art.
The term can also be used to describe the art of States orthodox contemporaries in the Byzantine Empire, whose culture has been influenced, without being part really (some historians speak of the Byzantine Commonwealth), as the first Bulgarian Empire, the first Serbian state or Kievan Rus. But also, in part, the art of the Venetian Republic and the Kingdom of Sicily, which had close links with the Byzantine Empire.
The art produced by the Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire is often called "post-Byzantine".
Certain artistic traditions that have their origins in the Byzantine Empire, especially as regards the iconography and the architecture of churches, were held in Greece, Bulgaria and Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the 'present age.
The Christ Pantocrator: Byzantine mosaic of the XIII century located in the Basilica Sainte-Sophie
Origins
Just as the Byzantine Empire is the political extension of the Roman Empire, Byzantine art is developed from the Roman art, itself deeply influenced by the ancient Greek art. Byzantine art has always kept in mind that classical heritage.
The capital, Constantinople, was adorned with a large number of classical sculptures which have become an object of wonder to some of its inhabitants In fact, the art produced during the Byzantine Empire, although marked by periodic returns to a classical aesthetic is especially marked by the development of a new aesthetic.
Miniatures of the 6th century Gospels Rabbula showing the abstract and symbolic aspect of Byzantine art.
The most striking feature of this new aesthetic is that it is abstract, not naturalistic. If classical art is marked by the attempt to create representations of reality as accurate as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic. The nature and causes of this transformation, which took place primarily during the late antiquity, are a subject of debate for scholars for centuries Giorgio Vasari attributed to a lower level and skills art. Although this view is occasionally reaffirmed, including Bernard Berenson modern scholars tend to have a more positive view of Byzantine aesthetics. Alois Riegl and Josef Strzygowski, writers of the early twentieth century, have played an important role in this reassessment of the art of late antiquity Riegl sees as a natural evolution of pre-existing trends in Roman art, while Strzygowski is considered the result of influences "oriental". Among recent contributions to the debate, there are also those of Ernst Kitzinger
In any event, the debate is purely modern: most Byzantine witnesses do not consider their art as abstract or non-naturalistic. As Cyril Mango has noted, "our own appreciation of Byzantine art stems largely from the fact that this technique is not natural, but the Byzantines themselves, judging by their statements, the considered being very naturalistic and as being directly in the tradition of Phidias, Apelles and Zeuxis
Virgin and Child between Emperor John II Comnenus and Empress Irene
The main themes of Byzantine art is essentially religious and imperial: they are often associated, as in portraits of Byzantine emperors that decorate the interior of Hagia Sophia. These dominant themes are the result partly of piety and the autocratic nature of Byzantine society and in part because of its economic structure: the wealth of the empire is concentrated in the hands of the Church and The Emperor, so they had the means to implement orders monumental art.
Religious art is not limited to the monumental decoration of church interiors. One of the main genres of Byzantine art is the icon, an image of Christ, the Virgin, or holy objects of veneration in Orthodox churches and private homes. Icons are religious in nature, particularly after the end of the iconoclasm, they are regarded as the manifestation of the "presence" of the single character represented by means of a "likeness" carefully nurtured by the canons of representation
The illumination of manuscripts is another facet of Byzantine art. Most often illustrated texts are religious or the Scriptures themselves (especially the Psalms), or theological texts or devotion (as the homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus). The texts are illuminated lay like Alexander Romance or historiarum Synopsis of John Skylitzes.
Wedding Ring, seventh century, gold and niello.
The arts "minor" or "luxury" (that is to say, ivory, soapstone, enamels, jewelry, silverware, ceramics, etc.) are produced in large numbers throughout the Byzantine period. Many of them were also religious in nature, but many items are made with decorations lay or non-figurative: for example, ivories, representing themes of classical mythology, and ceramics decorated with figures derived from the epic of Digenis Akritas.
Dates
The first Byzantine art
Leaf of a diptych ivory Areobindus, consul at Constantinople, 506. Areobindus, up, chair games in the Hippodrome, below.
The first Byzantine art is produced between the fourth century (reign of Constantine) and the seventh century (early iconoclasm). It reached its peak during the reign of Justinian (527 - 565), then that place a temporary reconquest of Italy, and is characterized by a mixture of Roman tradition, and tradition of Eastern Christianity. The planning of Constantinople and the monuments of Ravenna illustrate the important architecture, richly decorated with mosaic, while the production of ivory, of jewelry and painting on wood is growing. Sculpture, meanwhile, saw its last heyday, in the tradition of ancient sculpture.
Two events are of fundamental importance in the development of the first Byzantine art. First, the Edict of Milan, issued by the emperors Constantine I and Licinius in 313, authorizing the Christian worship, led to the development of Christian art monuments. Secondly, the establishment of Constantinople as "New Rome" in 330, creating a new arts center for the eastern half of the empire and, moreover, specifically Christian. Other artistic traditions flourished in rival cities such as Alexandria, Antioch or Rome, but did not survive the fall of these cities - due to the Arabs for the first two and the Goths to Rome - which has enabled Constantinople to establish his supremacy.
Constantine devoted great efforts to decorate Constantinople, decorating public places with statues of ancient and building a forum dominated by a porphyry column bearing a statue The major churches of Constantinople built by Constantine and his son, Constantius II are the first foundations of the Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople
The large building next campaign is initiated by Theodosius. The monument's most important surviving from this period is the obelisk and base erected by Theodosius in the Hippodrome The oldest church of Constantinople is the church of St. John the Baptist of Studion Monastery, built in the fifth century Because of the destruction and subsequent reconstruction, relatively few monuments of Constantinople, the first Byzantine art have survived. However, development can still be traced through the surviving structures in other cities. For example, important ancient churches are located in Rome (as the church of Santa Sabina and the Basilica Santa Maria Maggiore) and Thessaloniki (the Arch of Galerius and the Church of the Acheiropoietos)
Vergilius Vaticanus. Construction of a city
A large number of illuminated manuscripts, both sacred and secular, have survived this period of the first art. Classical authors like Virgil (the Vergilius Vaticanus and the Vergilius Romanus and Homer (the Iliad Ambrosian), were illustrated with narrative paintings. Other Bible Illuminated manuscripts of this period survive only in fragments: for example, the Quedlinburg Itala is a small part of what must have been a richly illustrated copy of the First Book of Kings
The first Byzantine art is also marked by the work of ivory The Diptychs ivory, often richly decorated, are offered as gifts by consuls newly appointed The silver plate is another important form of art luxury among the most luxurious this is the time of Theodosius Missorium The sarcophagi are still being produced in large numbers.
The era Justinian
Significant changes in Byzantine art coincided with the reign of Justinian (527-565). It also allowed the foundation of absolutism and imperial Byzantine state, codifying its laws and imposing by law his religious views to his subjects
Mosaics of San Vitale in Ravenna, the Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian of Ravenna, surrounded by clerics and soldiers.
A major component of Justinian's imperial project was a massive program of construction, project described by the court historian of Justinian, Procopius of Caesarea, in his book on the monuments Justinian rebuilt, renovated or founded numerous churches in Constantinople, including Hagia Sophia (Hagia Sophia) which was destroyed during the Nika riots, the Church of the Holy Apostles and Little Hagia Sophia Justinian also built several churches and fortifications outside the imperial capital, including the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Sinai and the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus
Some major churches of this era were built in the provinces by local bishops on the model of the new foundation of Constantinople. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna was built by Bishop Maximian of Ravenna. The decoration of Saint-Vital contains important mosaics of Justinian and Empress Theodora, although none of them has ever visited the Basilica
The archaeological discoveries of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have unearthed many pre-Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East. The provinces of the Roman Empire to the east and the future Byzantine Empire had inherited a great artistic tradition from antiquity. The mosaic of Catholic art flourished in this area from the fourth century. The tradition of the mosaic from the era Umayyad until the end of the eighth century. The most important examples are we having reached the Map of Madaba, mosaic of Mount Nebo, the Monastery of Saint Catherine of Mount Sinai and the church of St. Stephen in the former Kastron Mefa (now Umm al-Rasas ).
The first fully illuminated biblical manuscripts preserved date from the first half of the sixth century, particularly the Vienna Genesis the évangiliaire Rossano and Sinope Gospels The Vienna Dioscorides is a botanical treatise lavishly illustrated, available in the Byzantine aristocrat Julia Anicia
This period is also of ivory carvings, including one of Barberini, which probably depicts Justinian himself, and Ivory said the Archangel, now in British Museum Silver plates were decorated with scenes from classical mythology, for example, a plate kept at the Cabinet of Medals at Paris represents Heracles fighting the Nemean lion.
The crisis of the seventh century
Mosaics dating late 7th early 8th century representing St. Demetrius with donors.
The age of Justinian was followed by a decline in politics most of his conquests were lost and the Empire faced a particularly acute by the invasions of the Avars, Slavs, Persians and Arabs in the seventh century. Églament Constantinople was ruined by a religious conflict and political
The project's most significant monuments of this period who survived were undertaken outside the imperial capital. The church Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki was rebuilt after it suffered a fire in mid-seventh century. The new parts include mosaics made in a remarkably abstract style The church Koimesis at Nicaea (now Iznik), destroyed in the early twentieth century but continuing to live through photographs, shows the simultaneous existence of a more classic style in decoration of churches .
Iconoclasm (717-842)
The iconoclastic crisis takes place between the reigns of Leo III (717-741) and Theophilus (829-842). The destruction, sometimes violent images representing the deity comes in response to the incredible and uncontrollable development of the worship of icons, which borders animism. Period often described as particularly poor in artistic production, especially in architecture, iconoclasm, however, saw a development of luxury arts (textiles, jewelry).
The Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056)
Under the Macedonians held a true artistic renaissance, which seeks its references in the art of ancient Greece. Religious architecture is developed, with the invention of the Greek cross plan inscribed and development of monasticism. The arts are luxuries expanded considerably, especially visible through the production of ephemeral pieces of ivory.
Mannerism Comnenus (1058-1185)
Dynasty Comnenus takes place a second renaissance art, in line with that of the Macedonians. The architecture is developed, aimed at freeing interior space and increase the size, while feelings and expressions are exacerbated in paintings, mosaics and silverware.
The Latin interlude (1204-1261)
The capture of Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 led to the sacking of the city and the establishment of a short-lived western lineage. The art is completely paralyzed in the capital, where the destruction and looting are increasing, but some objects are produced, particularly in remote parts of the empire (Greece) ... Western influences are noticeable, as emblems or representations of holy knights in icons, and it is from this period qu'arrivent in Western Europe Byzantine elements, which influence for example on pre-Renaissance Italy in particular what is called the Byzantine painting.
The Palaiologos Dynasty (1261-1453)
The dynasty of Palaeologus, who returned to power after ousting the Crusaders, giving rise to a third artistic renaissance. However, the territorial decline of the Byzantine Empire and the political problems prevent the art to flourish as much as the Macedonians and Comnenus. The capture of Constantinople by Sultan Ottoman Mehmet II ends the Byzantine Empire, but his artistic influences are reflected in the Ottoman art and Russia.
Legacy
The Byzantine Empire per se ended with the fall of Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, but this time the Byzantine cultural heritage had been exported, including the spread of Orthodox Christianity, to Bulgaria, the Serbian, the Romanian and, more importantly, to Russia, which became the center of the Orthodox world after the conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans. Even under the Ottoman rule, Byzantine traditions, especially in iconography, survived on a smaller scale. In Crete, then under the aegis of Venice, a style "post-Byzantine" is needed for a little over two centuries, influenced more and more of the West. El Greco, in his youth, has been trained in the Byzantine tradition.
The influence of Byzantine art was marked in Western Europe since the reign of Charlemagne, who maintained close relations with Byzantium. She then demonstrated, particularly in Italy, in church architecture during the development of style romance to the tenth century and XI century centuries. The contribution of Byzantine intellectual emigres in the fall of Constantinople was also very important to the Renaissance.