On May 3rd after 2 years of hostility and volatile relations, India and Pakistan announced that they were resuming full diplomatic ties and that ambassadors would soon be appointed for each nation. Since the division of the nations in 1947 there has been frequent conflict and unrest. This article examines the history of relations between India and Pakistan

History of India

India is a vast country, the seventh largest in the world occupying 1,222,396 square miles. According to a 2001 census it's population was 1,027,015,247 which makes it the second most populous country in the world, behind China. According to this census, literacy stands at 65%. Life expectancy is estimated at around 60 years of age.

India's civilization began around 2500 BC and even at this time there was the elements of the now most prevalent religion Hinduism. According to data from the 1991 census, 82% of India's population is Hindu, 12.1% Muslim, 2.3% Christian, 1.9% Sikh, 0.8% Buddhist and 0.4% Jains.

In ancient history between 2000 and 3000 BC the sophisiticated Indus civilization had its core in what is now known as Pakistan. From this heart it emulated out into the rest of India. Aryans from Central Asia migrated to India in approximately 1500 BC. They integrated with the population already there and formulated some fundamental beliefs surrounding religion, social institutions and language which have remained ingrained in Indian society. There have been numerous empires ruling India from this time until modern day India including Greek and Persian empires. Muslim influence began in the 13th Century, then the Mongols invaded the region in the 16th Century.

With European imperialism beginning in the 16th Century and extending through until the 20th Century, a number of European countries took an interest in India. However the British became the most dominant initially through the money-making efforts of the East India Company. They developed industries such as cotton, tea and coal and created a rail network in India to transport the goods. In 150 years of presence in India the British company established a very effective system of administration and infrastructure. However an uprising in northern India led to the British Government assuming control of the profitable country in 1858 dividing it into administrative districts.

The beginning of the 20th Century saw the first real challenges to British rule in India. The infamous Mohandas Gandi became the key figure in the movement against colonialism through his non-violent methods of struggle. The first civil disobedience was organized in 1920 but this ended when violence broke out 2 years later. Gandi continued leading the battle against British rule for the next 30 years. The movement gained much momentum after World War II when Britain was itself in pieces and could no longer realistically command authority in its various colonies.

Division of India into India and Pakistan

In 1946 Britain declared it was in the process of granting India its independence. However the Muslim minority in India understood that this would lead to governing rule by Hindus who made up the vast majority of the population. The Hindu movement was represented by Gandi under the Congress title and the Muslims by Mohammed Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League. In 1947 following much protest and unrest, Lord Mountbatten decided the only solution was to create the requested partition and India and Pakistan were created as separate nations.

Partitioning was not an easy process and there was large scale conflict with 500,000 deaths. Gandi tried to calm the situation but was assassinated in 1948 by a Hindu extremist. The partition led to a huge movement of Muslims into Pakistan and relocation of Hindus and Sikhs into the territory of India. It is estimated that as many as 10 million people relocated.

A major issue of the partitioning was that the Muslim territories were not together and lay on opposite sides of the large Indian territory. They were known as East and West Pakistan and later became Pakistan and Bangladesh following Indian intervention.

When India was divided by Lord Mountbatten, Kashmir became a state which was left to align with either nation. Kashmir in the north of India was predominately Muslim so had strong allegiance to Pakistan. However its ruler was a Hindu and in 1948 he ceded Kashmir to India which inevitably led to a conflict between the newly created nations. The UN intervened but not decisively, simply dividing Kashmir between India and Pakistan with a 'Line of Control' and proposing a referendum for the people of Kashmir to vote on which country they wished to join but this has never happened. The weak solution has led to subsequent wars with Pakistan over Kashmir notably in 1965.

Since independence India has struggled with control of its vast country, its diverse people and its opposing neighbour. Two prime ministers have been assassinated, Mrs Indira Gandhi in 1984 and Rajiv Gandhi her son in 1991. There have been demands for autonomous rule by Sikhs, India has fought in 3 wars, one with Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, and there have been continuing economic problems and instability.

pakistan

The partition created a country now known as Pakistan. It occupies a much smaller region than India, 310,321 square miles and has approximately a tenth of the population of India at 131.5 million according to the 1995 census. Life expectancy rates are similar to those of India at approximately 58 years. The majority of the population of Pakistan is Muslim at 97%, with Buddhists, Christians, Hindus and Parsee making up the remaining 3%.

Since the division Pakistan has had similar issues to its neighbour. The first prime minister Liaqat Ali Khan was assassinated in 1951. By 1956, Pakistan declared itself an Islamic Republic but this was receded in 1962. The division of Pakistan into East and West created serious issues and by 1971 west Pakistan became a separate country known as Bangladesh. Pakistan continues to argue that Kashmir is not a part of India and that India must honour the plebiscite requested by the UN in 1948/9.

kashmir

Although known commonly as Kashmir the state is actually made up of many regions. Kashmir and Jammu simply represent those regions with the greatest population. Some sections of the state are under Pakistani occupation whilst others are controlled by China and the largest section Kashmir and Jammu is under Indian authority.

In terms of geographical areas, India controls the south and the east and have the largest population mass, Pakistan controls the north and west and China through their battles with India, also lay claim to a small section of northern Kashmir.

The fight over Kashmir - what actually happened?

Since the division of India, Kashmir has been a huge cause of conflict between India and Pakistan. The largest population in Kashmir is of muslim faith and therefore Pakistan argues that they should be under Pakistani rule and not under Indian rule where Hinduism is the principle religion.

There is much propaganda from all parties over the past and present situation in Kashmir and it is difficult to know what the true situation is. However an interesting angle is offered from a website which was created by people from within Kashmir and Jammu, who claim that the free information that they provide represents the actual history and state of affairs in Kashmir. Their site seems to offer a balance of opinion.

In terms of why the plebiscite was never held, they contend that before the UN involvement in the dispute, Kashmir was an independent country and signed agreements with both countries to this accord. However Pakistan did not honour the agreement and invaded parts of Kashmir which in turn led the ruler of the state the Mahajara to turn to India for support and the state was legally signed over to India. A war broke out in the region between India and Pakistan forces and eventually the UN intervened and suggested in their resolution that a plebiscite should be held. The site maintains that the reason why the plebiscite was never undertaken on Kashmir was because Pakistan forces refused to leave the areas in the state that they had invaded and therefore a free and fair vote could not take place. They assert that this is still the case today and therefore a referendum today would still not solve the situation

Besides the continuing debate over Kashmir, India and Pakistan have had difficult relations over other issues. In 1971, India and Pakistan went to war over what was seen as Indian intervention in East Pakistan and shortly afterwards the territory became a separate country Bangladesh. India and Pakistan have both resorted to developing nuclear weapons as a threat against each other.

The difference of religions in each country is seen as a principle issue of contention. However whether this is at the root of the antagonism or whether this difference simply exasperates other issues remains to be seen.